A CCNA or CCNP candidate who wants to be totally prepared for their exams is going to put together a home lab to practice on. With used Cisco routers and switches more affordable and plentiful then ever before, there's really no excuse to not have one!

With the many different models available, there is some understandable confusion among future CCNAs and CCNPs about which routers to buy and which ones to avoid. You can take almost any set of Cisco routers and put together a home lab; part of the learning process is taking what equipment you have available and putting together your own lab! For those of you preparing to start your home lab or add to your existing one, this article will list the routers I use in my Cisco pods. You certainly don't have to have all this equipment, but this will give you some good ideas on how to get started.

The most versatile router you can get for your CCNA / CCNP home lab is a 2520. These routers come with four serial ports, one ethernet port, and one BRI interface for ISDN practice. This mix of interfaces means you can actually use it as a frame relay switch while using the ethernet and BRI ports for routing. (There is no problem with using a lab router as both your frame relay switch and a practice router; for a frame relay switch sample configuration, visit my website!)

My pods consist of five routers and two switches, and three of the five routers are 2520s, due to their versatility. A recent ebay search showed these routers selling for $99 - $125, an outstanding value for the practice you're going to get.

I also use 2501s in my home labs. These have fewer interfaces, but the combination of two serial interfaces and one ethernet interface allows you to get plenty of practice.

A combination that works very well is using three 2520s; one as my dedicated frame relay switch, one as R1, and another as R2. Add a 2501 as R3, and you can have a frame cloud connecting R1, R2, and R3, a direct serial connection between R1 and R3, an Ethernet segment that includes all three routers, and an ISDN connection between R1 and R2 if you have an ISDN simulator. That combination will allow you to get a tremendous amount of practice for the exams, and you can always sell it when you're done!

2501s are very affordable, with many in the $50 range on ebay. It's quite possible to get three 2520s and one 2501 for less than $500 total, and you can get most of that money back if you choose to sell it when you're done.

With four routers to work with, you're probably going to get tired of moving that console cable around. An access server (actually a Cisco router, not the white boxes we tend to think of when we hear "server") will help you out with that. An access server allows you to set up a connection with each of your other routers via an octal cable, which prevents you from moving that console cable around continually. For an example of an access server configuration, just visit my website and look in the "Free Training" section.

Access server prices vary quite a bit; don't panic if you do an ebay search and see them costing thousands of dollars. You do NOT need an expensive access server for your CCNA / CCNP home lab. 2511s are great routers to get for your access server.

One question I get often from CCNA / CCNP candidates is "What routers should I buy that I can still use when I'm ready to study for the CCNP?" The CCIE lab changes regularly and sometimes drastically when it comes to the equipment you'll need. During my CCIE lab studies, I found that renting time from online rack rental providers was actually the best way to go. Don't hesitate when putting your CCNA / CCNP home lab together, wondering what will be acceptable for the CCIE lab a year or so from now. None of us know what's going to be on that equipment list, so get the CCNA and CCNP first - by building your own Cisco home lab!

For CCNA and CCNP candidates, it's hard not to laugh the first time you hear the phrase "router on a stick". Let's face it, that's a pretty silly term. But as those who have passed the CCNA and CCNP exams know, this is a vital exam topic that you must know how to configure and troubleshoot.

Basic Cisco theory states that for hosts in different VLANs to communicate, a Layer 3 device must be involved to handle the routing between the VLANs. That device is a router, and there are special considerations that must be taken into account for both the physical router itself and the configuration you'll be writing.

The router will be connected to a switch via a FastEthernet port (or higher). The router port cannot be a regular Ethernet port, since the router port will need the ability to send and receive data at the same time.

The configuration of the interface is where things get interesting. Let's say we have two VLANs that will be using router-on-a-stick to communicate.
Here is the VLAN information:

VLAN 20: 20.20.20.0 /24
VLAN 40: 40.40.40.0 /24

The port on the switch that will be connected to the router's FastEthernet port must be in trunking mode, and you must know the trunking protocol in use. We'll go with the Cisco-proprietary ISL here.

The physical FE port on the router will not have an IP address. The use of router-on-a-stick mandates the use of logical subinterfaces. While we don't have to use the VLAN numbers for the subinterface numbers, I've found this helps you keep the interfaces straight. One subinterface must be given an IP address in VLAN 20, and the other will have an IP address in VLAN 40


After creating subinterfaces fast 0.20 and fast 0.40, the config looks like this:

interface fastethernet0
no ip address
interface FastEthernet 0.20
ip address 20.20.20.1 255.255.255.0
interface FastEthernet 0.40
ip address 40.40.40.1 255.255.255.0

Believe it or not, you're almost done! Now we need the encapsulation statement under each subinterface. The subinterface statement must reflect both the VLAN number and the encapsulation type being used. When we're finished, the config would look like this:

interface fastethernet0
no ip address
interface FastEthernet 0.20
ip address 20.20.20.1 255.255.255.0
encapsulation isl 20
interface FastEthernet 0.40
ip address 40.40.40.1 255.255.255.0
encapsulation isl 40

And that's it! Your hosts in VLAN 20 should now be able to communicate with hosts in VLAN 40, and vice versa.

A couple of final troubleshooting points - the most common error with router-on-a-stick is to put the wrong vlan number in the encapsulation statement. Also, make sure you have configured the router's IP address in VLAN 20 as the default gateway for hosts in VLAN 20, and do the same for VLAN 40.

I hope you've enjoyed this look at router-on-a-stick. While the name may get a chuckle out of you, it's still used in quite a few networks out there, and knowing how to configure and troubleshoot it will get you that much closer to earning your CCNA and CCNP.

There are 4 color personality types. Red, Blue, Green and Yellow.

In a nutshell knowing what the different color personalities people have means you'll understand people better then they understand themselves.

At this point this tells you nothing. No worries it didn't mean anything to me when I first heard about personality colors. But man I wish I knew about this years ago, it would have saved me a ton of aggravation.

Everybody has a color type. And with that color type we act in a certain way. Certain things are important to us. We like to be talked to in a certain way. We like and dislike certain things.

Take me for example. Lets say you were calling me as a potential prospect.

What if you knew how I liked to be talked to? Knew what was important to me. Knew what I didn't like. Knew what I liked. Knew if I was over sensitive. Knew if I needed support. Knew if I like to have fun.

Knew if I would be teachable. Knew if I was money motivated. Knew if I would be a leader. Knew if I was creative. Knew if I needed all the facts and figures.... I could go on and on.

What if you knew all this information and soooooooo much more about me after only talking to me (anyone) for only a few minutes and then gained more and more insight to me the longer you talked to me?

Do you think this would impact your business and your personal life in a positive way?

If I have to answer that for you...honestly click away and go play a video game you're just wasting your time. (Sorry about that I had some guy tell me he saw no value in this. Gee no wonder he's not achieving all the success he could be.)

But for everyone else who sees the power of this. Would you not agree you'd have an unfair advantage on everyone else?

I can give you a brief overview of the four different personality colors. There is much more to learn but this will give you a good idea of the power of knowing color personalities. (They're in no particular order)

First there is Yellow. Yellow's make up 35% of the population and are open and indirect with their feelings. They are the best at using both sides of their brains. They are relationship and family orientated, logical, analytical and teamwork is very important to them. Their voice is soft and gentle and speak in relaxed tones.

Yellows have jobs like teachers, social workers usually any nurturing job. They like giving back to others. They don't like pushy people, aggressiveness, sudden change or animal cruelty.

Some of their weaknesses are. They are over sensitive, take things personally and will buy other peoples excuses.

Talk to a yellow slowly and relaxed and let them know they are appreciated.

Next is Blue (that's me). Blues make up 15% of the population. Blues are open and direct with their feelings. Very right brained, talk fast, very creative, must have fun doing things. Strong on family and relationships, spontaneous and enthusiastic.


Blues have jobs like sales (of any kind), singer songwriter anything that is creative.

They don't like not having fun they don't like facts and figures or being sold.

Their weaknesses are being unorganized, scattered and poor savers.

When you talk to a blue focus on fun, talk about excitement. Never try to sell a blue.

Next is Greens. Greens make up 35% of the population. They are indirect and self-contained with their feelings. Right brained, very logical, and analytical. Precise and need to have all the facts and figures. They are savers. Organized, task orientated and accurate. Let's get the kids to college. And they're the best negotiators.

Some of their jobs include, engineers, accountants, CPA, professor. Anything to do with logic and reasoning.

They don't like pushy people. Not having all the facts and figures. Not being on time, aggressiveness. Get depressed easily and are hard to please.

Some of their weaknesses are, they over analyze everything (to death). Hard to please and pessimistic about everything.

When speaking to a green, give them the facts and figures. You cannot overload a green with information.

And finally the Reds. Reds make up 15% of the population. Reds are direct and self-contained with their feelings. Reds are right brained. Their slogan is "It's my way or the highway" Forceful, stern and to the point. No chitchat, money is power, take action. Task orientated, Impatient, un-teachable, show me the money.

Their jobs consist of being CEO's, Attorneys, military leaders, and president of the bank.

Reds do not like losing control, indecision, small talk or crying. They don't like talking about time freedom, family or vacations.

Some of their weaknesses are having a big ego, domineering and un-teachable.

When you talk to a red you need to let them think you need them. They like being sold, close them, focus on money, and stroke their ego. Talk about your leaders income.

Now everything I just outlined about the different color personalities is not a judgment it's who people are.

Just imagine if you had this information the next time you talked to a prospect? How do you think your next call would go?

Learn this skill so the next time you're talking to someone and they say something in a certain tone or way or ask you a question. You'll know exactly why they're acting the way they are and why they are asking the questions they do.

Instead of taking things personally or getting frustrated, you'll say to yourself "Hey you're suppose to act like that or say that because you're a green" (pick a color)

Master this one skill and your business life and personal life will skyrocket. Guaranteed!!!

Until Next Time.

To your success,
Duffy Rogan

Have you ever had someone get right up in your face when they are talking to you? So close in fact that a letter "S' results in an unwanted shower? Often when we are out networking, we find ourselves in a loud environment as people try to talk louder to be heard over people trying to talk louder to be heard. This results in a roar that makes regular conversation difficult.

The temptation in this atmosphere is to get very close to another person so they can hear you and you them. This can result in being too close to another person sometimes making them very uncomfortable. This discomfort is heightened when we have been consuming alcohol and the person we are talking to have not.

Each of us has our own comfort zone boundary. This is a space around us that when another person enters we begin to feel uncomfortable. A good way to relate to this is to remember if you have ever had an argument where someone got right up in your face and possibly even pointed their finger very near to it. Remember how that made you feel? In most cases it makes a person feel more angry.

In a networking environment it is important to maintain a distance from a person that you are talking to. This distance should be almost an arms length. Most peoples comfort boundary is about the length of their arm. If you find yourself getting very close to someone in conversation, imagine if you raised your arm and that is the distance that you should be from the other person. If they move closer to you in the course of conversation, it is acceptable to them to be closer. If it is acceptable to you then continue with the conversation at that distance

You can sometimes tell if you are standing too close to someone if they seem to be moving back while you are talking to them. If they appear to be getting further away from you, do not move to be closer to them. They will stop when they reach the distance that they are comfortable with. If they turn and walk away of course it is time to find someone else to talk to.

To be most effective in your attempts to build relationships with others, it is most important to keep these things in mind. Remember that it makes no difference what you say to a person if they are not engaged in the conversation. Good observance of boundaries can give you the edge you need to make networking work.

The Answer To The Media Access Control Question
----------------------------
Over the past few weeks I have received quite a few e-mails about Ethernet cards, both wired and wireless, and more specifically, about Media Access Control (MAC) addresses. I think the main reason I've received so many questions about Ethernet cards and MAC addresses is people trying to secure their home wireless networks and their desire to use MAC address filtering. This type of filtering in wireless networks can be configured to allow or deny specific computers to use or attach to the wireless network, based on the MAC address.

My first thought was to write an article just about MAC addresses and wireless Ethernet. After thinking about it I decided to expand on this and go over some specific information about Ethernet cards and communication.

Different Ways Of Finding Your MAC Address And More
--------------------------------------------------
There are several ways of finding your Ethernet and communications protocol information. Many Ethernet card manufacturer's have proprietary software that can reveal this information but they work differently depending on the manufacturer. So we will use the Windows 2000 and XP "ipconfig" utility since this is available in the majority of Windows Operating Systems.

First, go to "start" -> "run" and type "cmd" without the quotes. Then hit the enter key. At the command line type "ipconfig /all", again without the quotes. Actually, just typing ipconfig without the /all will work but will only provide you with abbreviated information regarding your network cards. An example of what you might see by typing the "ipconfig /all" command is below with each item commented in green lettering:

Fault Tolerant And Highly Availability Computer Systems
----------------------------
There are several ways of finding your Ethernet and communications protocol information. Many Ethernet card manufacturer's have proprietary software that can reveal this information but they work differently depending on the manufacturer. So we will use the Windows 2000 and XP "ipconfig" utility since this is available in the majority of Windows Operating Systems.

First, go to "start" -> "run" and type "cmd" without the quotes. Then hit the enter key. At the command line type "ipconfig /all", again without the quotes. Actually, just typing ipconfig without the /all will work but will only provide you with abbreviated information regarding your network cards. An example of what you might see by typing the "ipconfig /all" command is below:

OutPut Of The "Ipconfig /All" Command
----------------------------------------------------------
Windows IP Configuration


Host Name . . . . . . . . . . . . : Home Computer
This is the name of your computer, typically defined during the windows installation. However, it can be changed after installation.

Primary Dns Suffix . . . . . . . : domain.com
If your computer participates in a network such as a Microsoft Windows domain this item may contain the name of the domain.

Node Type . . . . . . . . . . . . : Unknown
The Node Type may say Unknown, or peer-to-peer, or in some cases "hybrid". It is a setting that has to do with the Windows Internet Naming Services used in certain types of Windows domain networks.

IP Routing Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
This setting determines if Windows XP or 2000 will function as an IP router. If you have two or more network cards you can setup your system to act as a router, forwarding communications requests from one network to another. Windows 2000 can be configured to do this in a pretty straight forward fashion; Windows XP will need a registry modification.

WINS Proxy Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
WINS Proxy is another setting that is related to the "Node Type" we discussed earlier. It is normally not a required setting in a home or small office network, or newer types of Microsoft Windows domains.

Ethernet adapter Wireless Network Connection 2:
If you have multiple Ethernet (network) cards in your systems, as I do in this laptop, you will have multiple listings. This one happens to be the second Ethernet card, an internal wireless Ethernet card.

Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Broadcom 802.11b/g WLAN
This is the description of the Ethernet card, usually the Name / Manufacturer and type of Ethernet card. In this case, it is a Broadcom wireless Ethernet card built into my laptop.

Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-90-4B-F1-6E-4A
And here we have the MAC address. The MAC address is a 48 bit hexadecimal code and is suppose to be a totally unique address. It is 48 bits because each number or letter in hexadecimal represents 8 bits. Hexadecimal numbers range from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E, F. There are 6 alpha-numeric codes hence 6*8=48(bits). The first 3 codes identify the manufacturer of the card and the remaining codes are used to create a unique number. Theoretically there should never be a card with same MAC address on a local network. However, there are a few exceptions. There are software tools that allow you to change this code. In fact, this is a step some hackers take to attack other systems on a local network. I say local network because MAC addresses are not routable between network segments. By spoofing this address, you can impersonate another machine on the local network. Traffic that was bound for the intended target can be redirected to the hacker's machine. This is the address you would also use to populate a MAC address, or physical address table when setting up your wireless access point to support MAC address filtering.

DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : Yes
DHCP, or the Dynamic Host Control Protocol, if enabled means your computers IP address is being provided by a DHCP server on you network. The DHCP server could be your wireless access point, cable/dsl router, cable modem, or a server on your network. Also, if a DHCP server is not enabled on your network, your computers Operating System will auto generate a random IP address within a certain predefined range. This means you could network a group of systems together without having to manually assign the IP settings.

IP Address. . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.0.117
This parameter provides you with your current IP address. The address listed above is what is called a "private" address. There are certain classes of IP addresses that have been set aside for private use. This means for your internal, local, or private network at home or office. These addresses are not, or should not, be routable on the Internet. The Internet routes what are called "valid" IP addresses. Your cable/dsl router or cable modem has a valid IP address assigned to its "external" network interface. The external interface may be your phone line or cable TV cable.


Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
The Subnet Mask is a special number, or in some sense, filter, that breaks down your IP address, in this case private IP address, into certain groups. IP addresses and Subnet Masks can be a complicated matter and would take an entire article to go over.

Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.0.254
The default gateway, the IP addresses listed above, is the IP address of the device that will route your request, such as when you try to browse a website, to the Internet. It is a bit more complicated than that though as gateways or routers can route traffic to various different networks, even other private networks. At your home or small office, this gateway most likely is your cable/dsl modem or router.

DHCP Server . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.0.49
The DHCP server, remember we talked a little about this above, is the device that assigns your computer an IP address and other information. DHCP servers can assign all kinds of information such as; Default Gateway, Domain Name Servers (DNS), IP address, Subnet Mask, Time Server, and much more.

DNS Servers . . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.0.49, 64.105.197.58
DNS Servers are internal or external servers that resolve Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN), such as www.defendingthenet.com , to IP addresses. This is done because computers don't actually transmit your requests using the domain name, they use the IP address assigned to the FQDN. For most home or small office users, the primary DNS server is the IP address of your cable/dsl router. Your cable/dsl router than queries an external DNS server on the Internet to perform the actual resolution of the FQDN to IP address. The address 192.168.0.49 is an internal private device on my network whereas the 64.105.197.58 is an external public Internet DNS server and is present just in case my router has trouble performing the DNS resolution tasks.

Lease Obtained. . . . . . . . . . : Sunday, March 19, 2006 6:38:16 PM
This information tells you when your computer received its IP address and other information from a DHCP server. You will notice it says "Lease Obtained", that is because most DHCP servers only lease the IP address to you from a pool of available address. For instance, your pool may be 192.168.1.1 through 192.168.1.50. So your DHCP server has 50 IP addresses to choose from when assigning your computer its IP address.

Lease Expires . . . . . . . . . . : Wednesday, March 29, 2006 9:38:16 PM
When the IP address, assigned by the DHCP server, lease expires it will attempt to lease you the same or another IP address. This function can typically be changed on the DHCP server. For instance, on some fully functional DHCP servers, you can configure the Lease to never expire, or to expire within 1 day and so on.

Why Are MAC Addresses So Important And How Do They Work
------------------------------------------------------
To jump back to MAC address for just a bit. You may think that IP addresses are the most important thing when it comes to network communication. The reality is, MAC addresses are very important because without them computers would not be able to communicate over Ethernet networks. When a computer wants to speak with another computer on a local network, it will make a broadcast request, or ask a question, of who owns a particular IP address. For instance, your computer may say "Who is 192.168.0.254". Using the information above, my default gateway is 192.168.0.254 and will answer "I am "00-90-4B-F1-6E-4A" 192.168.0.254". It sends back its MAC address. That MAC address then goes into what is called a Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table on your computer. You can see this information by going to the command prompt like you did above and typing "arp –a". You will get information like the following:


Internet Address Physical Address Type
192.168.0.49 00-12-17-5c-a2-27 dynamic
192.168.0.109 00-12-17-5c-a2-27 dynamic
192.168.0.112 00-0c-76-93-94-b2 dynamic
192.168.0.254 00-0e-2e-2e-15-61 dynamic

How A Hacker Can Use MAC Addresses In An Attack
----------------------------------------------
You will notice the IP addresses and to the right of them the MAC addresses. Without this information, without the MAC address, you would not be reading this article right now. MAC addresses are not routable like IP addresses. They work on your local or private network. However, devices on the Internet perform the same tasks. Routers and switches maintain a list of their peer devices MAC address just like your computers and devices on your home or office network. I mentioned above that MAC addresses can be changed in order to redirect requests. For instance, if I were on your office network and you had an internal web server that took personal information as input, I could tell your computer to go to my laptop for the web site by broadcasting my MAC address tied to the real web servers IP address. I would do this when you computer asked "Who is the "Real Web Server"". I could setup a fake web server that looks just like the real thing, and start collecting information the real web server would normally collect. You can see how dangerous this can be.

Conclusion
-----------
There are several other easy ways you can find your MAC address but they can be a little confusing if you have more than one internal network card. Most external USB, or PCMCIA wired and wireless Ethernet cards have their MAC address printed on them. In cases where the wired or wireless network card are inside your computer, such as in laptops, the MAC address is sometimes printed on the bottom of the laptop. Even Desktop systems cards that are inserted in PCI slots have the MAC address printed on the Ethernet card.

To the information security professional wireless networking may be thought of as a four letter word to be avoided at all costs. Regardless of the security implication wireless networking can provide cost efficiency, and because of that wireless technologies are here to stay. While many in the profession believe that wireless networks can be easily compromised, this class will show how the appropriate wireless architecture with the proper security controls can make your wireless network as secure as any other remote access point into your network.

In this three day, wireless security workshop, we will examine the cutting edge of wireless technologies. The purpose of the course is to give you a full understanding of what wireless (802.11) networks are, how they work, how people find them and exploit them, and how they can be secured. This hands-on course is based on real world examples, solutions, and deployments. In this course we will actually set up and use wireless networks, determine the tools to uncover wireless networks, and also look at how to defeat the attempts to secure wireless networks.

Course Completion

Upon the completion of our CISM course, students will have:

Constructed a wireless network architecture

Install and configure 802.1x authentication using Microsoft Windows IAS and Server 2000

Install a wireless access point

Distinguish between 802.11x standards

Defeat Wired Equivalent Privacy

Key Take Aways:

An understanding of wireless networks

A CD of common tools and documentation

An ability to search the internet for updates and more information on wireless networks

Detail of Course Content The following topics will be covered:

Wireless History

Radio Frequency (RF) Fundamentals

WLAN Infrastructure

802.11 Network Architecture

802.1X Authentication

Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)/(LEAP)/(PEAP)

Detection Platforms

WLAN Discovery Tools

Kismet

Wireless Sniffers

Conventional Detection

Antennas

Exploiting WLANs

Securing WLANs

Other Wireless Options

Legal Issues including GLBA and ISO-17799

The Computer is a very complicated device we use for our every day comfort and the importance of some of its numerical aspects is sometimes neglected. For example: a different number is given to each computer when its user goes online or when it is part of a network. This number is the IP address and knowing about it is like knowing where you live…

What's my IP and what do its numbers stand for?

IP stands for Internet Protocol and the address is formed from 4 numbers separated by periods. The IP address format is a 32 bit numeric one and each number can be from 0 to 255. The IP address consists of two parts: first one represent the network number and it is similar for more than one user (like the number of a street) and second represents the host name which is different for each user (like the house number). To increase the number of available IP addresses within big networks with a lot of users or small networks with few hosts, the address is divided into 4 classes (A, B, C, and D)

Having an IP address it's like having a last name in a network. To identify a computer in a network (LAN-local area network, WAN-wide area network or on the Internet) it has to have an IP address. This number is similar to a phone number or to a zip code. It is unique and without it the device or computer can not be used in a network area. Within an isolated network the computers can be assigned different random IP addresses, but if a private network needs to be connected to the Internet the IP has to be registered so that its uniqueness is verified

Where do I find my IP address?

Connect to a site that recognizes your IP address and let you see it also. You can visit this site for example: iprelated.com. These IP Lookup sites are very easy to use and very useful for others. An IP address can offer a lot information about the person who logs in on the Internet and engages in a certain activity.

This is how illegal activity is sometimes detected and violations are reported. The IP address says less about the user if it is a dynamic one because it changes every time the user logs in.

Another interesting aspect is that some people who have the information from your IP address are interested in taking you computer over and using its resources. This is not impossible! They can use software that enables them to do this so it is better to hide your IP when you are online.

Who gives me my IP address?

The IP address can be static or dynamic, meaning it can be the same every time you are online or it can change. The IP address is provided by a server through a service called DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

Arthroscopy (pronounced ahr-THROS-kuh-pee) is a technique of using another medical instrument called the Arthroscope. This instrument is straight and cylinder-like with a series of lenses and optic fiber bundles that come in sizes of 1/12 to 1/5 inch (2 to 5 millimeters.) The Arthroscope is used to examine a joint in a body, such as knee joints, ankles, elbows, hips and shoulders. This is done by the Arthroscope being inserted into a joint of the body through a small incision. A light is then transmitted by the use of the optic fibers to the tip of the Arthroscope to illuminate the joint. The use of optic fiber through the Arthroscope enables a physician to thoroughly examine a joint for diagnosis or treatment.

Optic fibers used in the Arthroscope can be used to measure temperature and other bodily

attributes as well as being used in performing surgical procedures. The problem most commonly treated by Arthroscopy is torn cartilage in the knee. This is when a small incision is made at the joint for use of the optic fiber in the Arthroscope and then a second incision is made for the use of other surgical instruments to remove the cartilage. The primary advantage of using optic fibers through Arthroscopic surgery is that the operation can be performed through a small incision, resulting in the patient experiencing the least amount of discomfort and a healing time that is much shorter, when compared to the other methods of surgery.

Aside from the uses of the Endoscopes and the Arthroscopes, another widely used function of optic fibers in the medical field is the ability for the optical fibers to be inserted into blood vessels to give a quick and accurate analysis of blood chemistry. Physicians have also found medical use of the optical fibers to direct intense laser light at a wound to stop bleeding or to burn away abnormal tissue. Fiber optic training is necessary in the field of medicine. The use of optic fiber through medical science continues to grow rapidly to everyday to develop more new and advanced medical devices to enable physicians to provide people with better service.